1. The Legacy of the Weimar government in explaining initial support for Nazi regime: acceptance of, and support for, Nazi rule among different social, economic and religious groups
 Germany became a Parliamentary Republic in November 1918 following the abdication of Kaiser Wilhelm II.
 The Republic survived a period of crisis 1919-23, enjoyed a fragile recovery 1924-29, but had collapsed by the end of 1932.
The Legacy of the Republic helps to explain the initial support for the Nazis.
 The Republic was seen by many Germans as a product of Germany’s defeat in World War One.
 Germany’s defeat in war was never accepted by many Germans who believed that their country had been ‘stabbed in the back’ by unpatriotic Liberals, Pacifists and Jews. The new Republic was therefore seen as part of a conspiracy.
 The Republic was seen as an alien institution imposed by Germany’s enemies. German diplomats were barred from the peace negotiations at Versailles in 1919.
 Many Germans felt that they had no obligation to accept democracy as part of a dictated peace (or ‘Diktat’).
 The Republic never achieved lasting political stability. Governments were weak, short-lived coalitions.
 There were 20 Governments from 1919 to 1932. This was mainly due to the system of proportional representation which made it difficult for any one party from winning a clear majority in the Reichstag (parliament).
 Article 24 allowed the President to dismiss the government whilst Article 48 gave emergency powers to the President. Article 48 also undermined Governments by allowing the President to rule by Decree without reference to the Reichstag.
 Weimar Governments were blamed for the economic crises which plagued Germany 1919-1932. Germany suffered hyperinflation in 1923, and high levels of unemployment throughout the 1920s.
 An agricultural depression caused widespread poverty in the countryside in 1929 and there was massive unemployment following the Wall Street Crash in 1929. By 1932 unemployment had risen to six million.
How did the Nazis exploit the unpopularity of the Weimar Republic in 1932-33?
 The Nazis deliberately made different promises to different sections of German society. All promises were vague and contained no accurate details. They made no attempt to reconcile conflicting claims.
 They promised to rescue bankrupted peasant farmers and to reverse the long-term drift from the land to the cities.
 They promised to generate economic recovery and to create full employment.
 They appeared to be the only small party strong enough to prevent a communist revolution and end the anarchy on the streets, and to remove the threat from the communists.
 They appealed to German nationalism by challenging the Treaty of Versailles.
 They offered strong leadership and stable government.
 The Nazis made particular efforts to appeal to the youth of Germany by attempting represent themselves as a ‘new party’ and the ‘future’.
 Popular, simplistic policies were powerfully advertised by a well-organised propaganda machine led by Josef Goebbels. The Nazis organised a relentless programme of meetings, rallies and demonstrations 1929-1932.
 The Nazis used their private army the Sturm Abteilungen (SA or Storm-troopers) to intimidate their political opponents, especially the communists.
 Hitler was a charismatic figure, able to impress crowds by his theatrical and demagogic style of leadership.
Nazi Support in 1933
 The Nazis were able to win support from all social groups.
 They won their greatest support from the lower middle classes, skilled workers and peasant farmers.
 The Nazis won less support from the social elites, the unskilled workers, and the unemployed.
 The Nazis grew more popular among Protestants, less so from Catholics.
 The Nazis won support in particular from Germans over 60 and from young people aged 18-24.
Why did the Nazis appeal to the Lower Middle Class (‘Mittelstand’)?
 Many shopkeepers, clerks, professionals, craftsmen had been ruined by the hyperinflation of 1923.
 They thought that the Weimar Republic had been too left wing and had favoured Trade Unions.
 They resented ‘Big Business’ and the growth of large supermarkets, often owned by Jews.
 They feared economic ruin following the Great Depression.
 They feared a Communist Revolution.
 Many hated the artistic modernism and moral permissiveness of the 1920s.
Why did the Nazis appeal to peasant farmers?
 Farmers believed that Weimar Governments had favoured urban workers.
 Many farmers had left the land as farm incomes declines during the 1920s.
 Many farmers, particularly in Northern Germany had been ruined by the agricultural depression after 1928.
 Farmers feared that their lands would be collectivised following a Communist Revolution.
 The Nazis exploited farmers' conservative instincts by preaching their ideology of ‘blood and soil’.
Why did the Nazis appeal to skilled workers?
 Skilled workers were usually not represented by Trade Unions or by the Social Democrats.
 The income of skilled workers increased less than that of unskilled in the 1920s.
 The development of ‘new industries’, which used assembly line techniques, had reduced the demand for skilled workers.
 Skilled workers were threatened by mass unemployment after 1929.
 Skilled workers feared a Communist Revolution more than the unskilled because they feared that socialist policies would lead to a levelling down of incomes.
Why did the Nazis appeal more strongly to Protestants?
 Protestants believed that the Catholic Centre Party (Zentrum) had been too powerful during the Weimar Republic.
 The Centre Party had been part of the coalition governments during the Weimar period.
 Protestants feared an attack on the church if the communists came to power.
 Some Protestants were anti-Semitic.
 Protestants identified more strongly with German nationalism.
How did the Nazis establish their dictatorship in 1933?
 Hitler was invited by President von Hindenburg to become Chancellor on 30th January 1933.
 The cabinet included three Nazis: Hitler himself with Frick as Interior Minister, Goering as Minister without Specific Responsibility. The others, like Vice-Chancellor von Papen, were conservatives.
 Goering, as Minister-President of Prussia, drafted Nazi stormtroopers into the police force.
 Hitler ordered new elections to be held in March and began a campaign of intimidation and propaganda.
 Newspapers and radios were censored by the propaganda ministry led by Goebbels.
 Hitler blamed the Reichstag fire on 27th February on the Communists and introduced a law ‘for the Protection of People and State’ which established a State of Emergency on 28th February. This gave unlimited powers of arrest of Nazi opponents, especially Communists and Socialists.
 Concentration camps such as Dachau, Munich and Sachsenhausen near Berlin were opened to imprison and torture Nazi political opponents and ‘anti social’ groups such as tramps, drunks and homosexuals.
 The Nazis won 43.9% in the Elections on 5th March. To secure a majority they formed an alliance with the German Nationalist Party (DNVP).
 On 21st March, the Nazis staged an elaborate Commemoration Service at the garrison church at Potsdam to demonstrate their democratic respectability and conservative principles.
 With the support of the Centre Party, Hitler secured the passage of the Enabling Act (23rd March) through the Reichstag. This gave the Nazis dictatorial powers.
Nazi Propaganda and the use of terror: the nature and extent of resistance to Nazi rule
Josef Goebbels became Minister of Popular Enlightenment and Propaganda in January 1933. Propaganda was used to indoctrinate Nazi ideology and to enforce conformity to the regime.
How did the Nazis use Propaganda?
 Journalists were purged, newspapers were controlled by the Nazi agency DNB, which held daily press briefings.
 Radio broadcasts offered direct access to the home. Cheap radios were produced so that all families could hear the Nazi message.
 Posters in trams and on streets.
 Films directed by Leni Riefenstahl such as ‘Triumph of the Will’ (1935) and ‘Olympia’ (1938).
 Stage-managed events such as the Day at Potsdam (March 1933), the Book-burning (May 1933), the Berlin Olympics (1936) were used to create and bolster the image of the Nazis.
 A regular programme of rallies, demonstrations, processions developed to catch the attention of the German people and maintain support.
 Ritual: Celebration of Nazi Days, the Nazi Salute, Horst Wessel Song.
 State paternalism managed through ‘Strength Through Joy’, ‘Beauty of Labour’, ‘Winterhelp’.
 Control of teachers, syllabus and youth groups.
 Manipulation of Art, Music and Architecture.
How successful was Nazi Propaganda?
 Propaganda was powerful because it enjoyed a state monopoly, was skilfully deployed and because it often reinforced popular prejudices.
 Propaganda was effective in securing the consolidation of the dictatorship, demonstrating state paternalism and reinforcing Nazi ideas for the family and young people.
 Propaganda also encouraged a growing sense of Nationalism and the marginalisation of the Jews.
 For many Germans, propaganda dulled their senses and lulled them into a sense of security or helplessness.
 There were, however, limits to the success of propaganda. The Germans were a highly educated and cultured nation and propaganda failed when it was crude or oppressive.
 Many Germans remained cynical or unconvinced. There was little enthusiasm for the ‘Anschluss’ with Austria in 1938 or for the attack on Jews during Crystal Night in 1938 or for a European War in 1939.
How did the Nazis use Terror?
 Nazi Stormtroopers had beaten and killed their opponents in the election campaigns 1930-1932.
 Stormtroopers were drafted into the Prussian Police Force in February 1933 and continued to bully opponents.
 Concentration camps such as Dachau near Munich and Sachsenhausen near Berlin were opened to imprison and torture Nazi political opponents and ‘anti socials’.
 The Secret State Police (Gestapo) was formed in April 1933 to eliminate all dissent.
 The SS (Schutzstaffel) led by Heinrich Himmler became the main instrument of Nazi Terror.
 Rohm and the leadership of the Stormtroopers were purged following the Night of the Long Knives (30th June 1934) by the SS.
The Night of the Long Knives
Hitler purged Rohm and other leaders of the Stormtroopers as well as leading Conservative opponents such as General von Schleicher, Jung and von Bose.
Why did Hitler purge his Opponents?
 Hitler feared that his dictatorship was challenged by Rohm who claimed to lead three million Stormtroopers.
 Rohm’s ideas of a ‘Second Revolution’ to destroy the social elites and to replace the army by a ‘Peoples Army’ alienated Hitler’s conservative political and business allies who were vital at this stage of his dictatorship.
 The Generals demanded the destruction of the Stormtroopers as a precondition of their co-operation with rearmament. General von Brauschitsch gave Hitler a blunt ultimatum to this effect in May 1934.
 President von Hindenburg and Vice-Chancellor von Papen condemned the brutality and lawlessness of the Stormtroopers and threatened to declare Martial Law.
 Hitler also feared a challenge from the Conservatives on the death of Hindenburg. He was particularly alarmed by von Papen’s speech at Marburg in June 1934 which denounced the lawlessness on the streets.
How did Hitler purge his Opponents?
 Goering and Himmler drew up death lists of all suspected opponents under the codename ‘Operation Hummingbird’.
 Hitler ordered Rohm to disband the Stormtroopers for the summer.
 Whilst on retreat at Bad Weissee in Bavaria the SS mounted a raid to arrest SA leaders.
 Goering produced fabricated evidence accusing SA leaders of political subversion and sexual debauchery.
 Conservative opponents, such as von Scheicher, were shot by SS officers in Berlin.
 The Reichstag accepted and supported Hitler’s actions.
Why was the Purge so important?
 It resolved Hitler’s political crisis and secured his dictatorship.
 It broke any remaining moral or legal restraints in the dictatorship.
 It established the power of the SS.
 It paralysed opposition from the conservatives.
 It secured Hitler’s alliance with the army. This was important following the death of President Hindenburg on 2nd August 1934.
 On the death of Hindenburg, Hitler abolished the position of President and became Head of State or Fuhrer of Germany.
 The army agreed to swear an oath of allegiance to Hitler as Head of State.
 In a plebiscite on 19th August 90% of Germans voted in favour of Hitler’s position as Head of State.
 The SS absorbed all police functions in 1936. The SS organised the purge of dissident Generals, Blomberg and Fritsch in February 1938.
Opposition to the Nazi dictatorship 1933 – 1939
There was no organised nation-wide opposition to the dictatorship. Those Germans who opposed Hitler did so in small isolated and uncoordinated groups.
Why did some Germans attempt to resist the Nazis?
 Communists and socialists were ideologically opposed to the Nazis and became the regime’s first victims following the Emergency Decree of February 1933.
 Some conservatives realised that von Papen’s attempt to control Hitler and then to eject him had failed. Vice-chancellor von Papen headed a small group of conservative dissidents which gathered information cataloguing the regime’s illegality.
 In June 1933 von Papen denounced the brutality of the regime at Marburg.
 Church leaders opposed the Regime’s interference with education and youth organizations. Some Protestants formed the ‘confessional church’ led by Martin Niemoller.
 Many Germans were shocked by the brutality of the Nazis to the Jews during the Crystal Night attacks 9/10 November 1938.
 Some aristocratic Generals feared the threat posed to the army by one S.S. and opposed Hitler’s aggressive foreign policy after 1937 which threatened war before Germany was fully prepared.
 Von Blomberg and von Fritsch opposed Hitler’s policy in 1937 and Generals Beck and Halder plotted to oust Hitler in September 1938 during the Czech crisis.
Why was resistance to the Nazi dictatorship ineffective 1933 – 1939?
 The speed and ruthlessness of Hitler’s seizure and consolidation of dictatorship surprised and confused his opponents. Legal opposition became almost impossible following the Emergency Decree of 28 February 1933.
 Key leaders of the political opposition such as Ernst Thalmann and Otto Wels were arrested and sent to concentration camps in March 1933.
 The Nazis established a powerful terror system by controlling the police and expanding the power of the SS.
 The communists and socialists were bitterly divided and failed to present a united front.
 The communists were ordered by Stalin not to oppose the dictatorship but rather to await its inevitable collapse during economic crisis.
 Democratic opponents were too committed to legal methods. They were slow to appreciate that only the removal of Hitler could destroy the dictatorship.
 The conservative opponents were compromised by their alliances with the Nazis and sympathy for some of Hitler's policies.
 Resistance groups were isolated and uncoordinated.
 Church leaders were generally concerned only with defending their own interests within the system.
 Army leaders were trapped by their oath of allegiance to Hitler 2nd August 1934. Many were sympathetic to his policies of rearmament and military expansion.
 Resistance groups failed to motivate popular support.
 Most Germans were indifferent or non-political. They were impressed by the promises and apparent changes that Hitler brought about.
 Many people were enjoying improved standards of living and supported Hitler’s policy of destroying the Treaty of Versailles and restoration of national pride.
 Violence developed gradually during the years 1933-39. In 1936 there was a a relaxation during the Olympic Games.
 Violent excesses were attributed to Nazi subordinates, not to Hitler personally.
2. Hitler: ‘weak dictator’ or ‘master in the Third Reich’
A. The structure of the Nazi state and the personal role of Hitler
How was the state Nazified 1933-1934?
 The key method was one of ‘co-ordination’ or ‘Gleichschaltung’ of state institutions and organisations.
 Gradually all parts of the government, administration and legal and judicial processes were brought under the control of the Nazi Party.
 The Civil Service, the Courts, the Police and Education were purged of all Jews and political opponents.
 The Free Trade Unions were abolished on 2nd May 1933 and replaced by the Nazi DAF (Deutsche Arbeit Front) led by Robert Ley.
 The Centre and Conservative Parties (DVP, DNVP) willingly dissolved: the Social Democrats were outlawed in July 1933.
 The Reichsrat (Upper House) and state parliaments were dissolved in January 1934. Nazi Governors (Reichstaltheller) were appointed to rule the states.
How was the Nazi state organized?
The Nazi state was not a monolithic structure: power was divided between several different overlapping and often competing systems.
The State Civil Service
 This was professional and efficient and was initially protected from party interference by Interior Minister, Frick.
 Jews and political dissidents were purged in March 1933.
 Hess controlled all appointments from 1935: party membership became compulsory in 1939. Increasingly the civil service became subordinate to the Nazi machine.
 Its role increasingly became the implementation and enforcement of Nazi decrees.
 The civil service became progressively less efficient as it became more dominated by the Nazi Party. Bureaucracy increased because the Nazis were addicted to paper work.
The Nazi Party
 This was initially too radical, unwieldy, divided and inexperienced to compete with the civil service. The calibre declined as the membership rapidly increased in the first half of 1933.
 Rival bodies were established to shadow, marginalise, by-pass or take over from state agencies.
 The party secretary, Rudolf Hess established a more efficient, informed and disciplined Department to influence policy making by 1937.
 The party controlled 32 Nazi regional bosses ‘Gauleiters’ and all the local District Group Cells and Block leaders. It had 5 million members and 500,000 officials.
 The party developed ‘affiliated’ or ‘front’ groups for workers, farmers and professional people.
END OF PART ONE