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A2 - Government & Politics - Edexcel - Political Ideologies

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Reply 20
panda-size
Lol, but if you look at some of the indicative comments from the mark schemes some of the stuff are "copied" from the Heywood book line to line, so just need to learn and churn.

I don't have McNaughton's notes, but my own notes are quite good - actually have a decent teacher.

Are you doing all 3 modules next week or have you already done unit 4 in jan. I've only got unit 5 and 6 left to do.


I'm doing all three unfortunately. :frown:
vixky!
I'm doing all three unfortunately. :frown:


:frown: , well I'm mingling politics with further maths, and edexcel doesnt think people do them together so have put them near the same time which is no fun for me.

We are all gonna live through...:smile: , well i hope:p:
Reply 22
panda-size
:frown: , well I'm mingling politics with further maths, and edexcel doesnt think people do them together so have put them near the same time which is no fun for me.

We are all gonna live through...:smile: , well i hope:p:


Okay I don't envy you in the slightest!

We'll all be fine. Definitely. :biggrin:
is there anywhere the mark schemes are available?
i only have the examiners reports from the edexcel website.

im only doing unit 5 and 6, got a B in unit 4 in Jan so I really need top marks to get an A!!
also, does anyone have any past questions before 2005 for unit 5? im only doing feminism and fascism. here is what i have if this is helpful for anyone:

2007
Fem - Why have some feminists rejected the idea of gender equality? (20 marks)
Analyse similarities and differences between lib and rad feminism (60)
Fascism- Whyhave fascists supported struggle and war (20)
Fascism is a blend of socialism and nationalism, discuss (60)

2006
Fem - Distnguish between sex and gender and explain its implications for feminist theory (20)
To what extent is feminism a single doctrine (60)
Fascism - Why has fascism been associated with totalitarianism (20)

2005
Feminism - out line the differences between lib and rad fem (20)
Fascism - why have fascist supported leadership and elitism (20)
fascism is merely a radical form of racialism, discuss (60)

anyone got anything from 04, 03, 02?
Reply 24
For unit 4 I did a few practice questions (20 marks)
Here they are if they help: (I usually find reading through past answers helps me) Italics is my teacher's comments.

Define individualism and explain its importance to liberal ideology

Individualism is the theory that the individual is sovereign and therefore that the state should merely take a defensive role in protecting the liberty of each individual, allowing the individual to act in any way he or she wishes so long as it does not interfere, infringe or disrupt the same liberties of another. Liberals believe that society does not exist, but instead that it is merely a collection of fundamentally good, self reliant and self sufficient individuals. Liberalism takes on an atomistic approach to society and that individuals are primarily defined by their inner qualities.
The theory of individualism is in contrast to that of collectivism, where rather than allowing the individual to benefit their own "life, liberty and pursuit of happiness" (Locke/Jefferson) they must serve the interests of a society as a whole. 'Pursuit of happiness' was Jefferson, Locke was 'Life liberty and property.'
Individualism is very important within liberal thinking as it immediately interlinks with the idea of 'laissez faire' (leave to do/what will be will be) and allowing the individual to do as he or she pleases, rather than to be constricted or made to do as others wish. Classical liberals hold this true by believing in negative freedoms, the lack of force preventing an individual from pursuing his or her true happiness and enhancing their own individual talents. Classical liberals also believe that "the drunkard in the gutter is precisely where he ought to be" (Sumner) and that the individual is reliable for scrutiny of her or her actions without state intervention in personal lives.
Both Classical and Neo liberals endorse the individual through freedom of expression within their stance on the economy. They do this by allowing the individual to do as they wish without state intervention, however, although Neo liberals are strong believers of 'laissez faire' on their economics, they, with Modern liberals believe in state intervention in the individual's personal life, 'helping those to help themselves'. Individualism is shown to be in the foundations of liberal thinking, however as the individual changes liberalism too must be pragmatic in its dealings, and therefore the benefits of state intervention and collectively working as a society has eroded the beliefs of overall freedom, as in order to help the individual, the state must intervene so that it can help an individual that cannot help itself.

Good answer. The only improvement I suggest is one of structure and communication. rather than ambling through the impact of individualism on view of stat, society and economy, be explicit that that is what you are doing in your language. e.g. Liberal committment to individualism has had an impact on their view of state.....



K&U - 5/6

AIE - 7/10

Com - 3/4



= 15/20 = 75% = B



Distinguish between a socialist and conservative view on human nature


Socialists pride their ideology in the idea of collectivism, which is opposed to the individualistic approach manned (favoured?) by Liberal thinkers. Collectivism stresses the ability of human beings to work together as 'comrades' or as 'brothers and sisters' to cooperate and work together towards an utopian idea of equality between everyone within a stateless and classless society. (not allsocialist believe in a stateless society so it would be better to write; 'a classless and pehaps even stateless society') Socialists believe that human nature is 'plastic' or moulded by individual experience and by what is within society. They believe that it is society that shapes us and that we are indivisible of (from) society itself. They believe that society is the largest factor in the creation of an individual's personality and it is this which causes socialists to believe that the competition of capitalism is what corrupts the individual. Socialists believe that it is within human nature to be cooperative, very much unlike the capitalistic economics which endorse competition, socialists believe that forcing an individual to compete causes them to deny their social needs, therefore cooperation harnesses the power of the collective: "whole is greater than the sum of the parts."
However, conservatives believe that the individual is fundamentally flawed and conservatism is said to be a 'philosophy of human imperfection' (O'Sullivan). Conservatives, very much unlike socialists believe that strong positive freedoms and state intervention are needed in order to stop individuals from exploiting one another. Socialists would argue that it is the state and the society of which is created by capitalism and the lack of equality that causes the individual to compete and therefore exploit one another in order to get what is percieved to be the best. Conservatives also believe in strong social classes. Marx defines these to be the bourgeoisie (the ruling class) and the proletariat (the working class). Within a paternal society (of which is sustained by conservatism) the higher class, or the bourgeoisie would have it within their duty to look after the lower classes. Conservatives believe that 'authority, like society, evolves naturally' (Haywood) and it is that authority that must 'father' the individuals below it, this is based upon the feudal principle of 'noblesse oblige' (this is largely seen in One-Nation Conservatism which has been remarked upon as being a form of Tory Welfarism).
In spite of these differences both ideologies are connected through the dependence of the individuals upon one another, both are reliant upon families, both physical and metaphoric, and those within society. Both are very much unlike the atomistic ideas of liberal thinkers as they both understand the collectivity of people and their need to cooperate with one another. Their main difference however, lies in the fact that the conservatives view and understand individuals to be unequal, but instead of striving to eradicate inequality like the socialists or to work towards a utopia they decide instead to use a natural hierarchy and pragmatic response in order to benefit all individuals, collectively. It can be noted though, that the higher class is 'more equal than others'.

Excellent knowledge and understanding and a good idea to tackle similarities as well as differences. You answer may flow more smoothly if it went lib, cons, lib, cons rather than lib, lib, lib cons, cons, cons.


K&U - 6/6

AIE - 7/10

Com - 4/4



= 17/20 = 85% = A



Distinguish between liberal New Right and the conservative New Right


The New Right is a broad term which has become a marriage of two apparently contrasting ideological traditions. The New Right is a combination of Classical liberal free market economic theories of Adam Smith and traditional (pre-Disraeli) conservative social theory. The New Right is in defence of order, authority and discipline. It is, depending on the strand, otherwise known as Neoliberalism or Neoconservatism. It is a blend of radical, reactionary and traditional features.
Liberal New Right has been drawn from Classical liberalism. It is anti-statist and so believes in minimum state intervention claiming that 'private good; public bad'. The state is regarded as a realm of coercion and unfreedom; therefore faith is placed in the individual and the market. Conservative New Right, in contrast, is a response to anxiety about relaxation of moral standards and the weakening of authority in society and so believes in a strong state and stance on law and order. Conservative New Right has been defined as 'social authoritarianism' which looks to strengthen community and 'the family' by implementing social disciplines and restoring authority.
New Right Liberals believe that collectivism restricts the individuals initiative and saps self-respect, however, New Right Conservatives promote collectivism, particularly within 'the family' imposing strong 'Victorian morals' and in particular natural hierarchies, such as the paternal father. New Right Conservatives promote tradition rather than the idea of organic society. They believe in a strong national identity and that through valuing nation it inherently binds society. New Right Liberals, on the other hand, promote the idea of the individual further by encouraging self-reliance to make rational choices in their own interest. New Right Liberals respect the market as a mechanism through which the sum of the individual's choices will lead to progress and general benefit.
To conclude, the liberal New Right joined with conservative New Right is an ideological mix. The New Right is free market economics connected with a strong state of which intervenes solely in personal lives in order to restore discipline and respect which is thought to have been largely lost since the 1960s. Individually the New Right strands are largely contrasting, but slot together well if liberal social views are neglected and conservative economic stances are forgotten.

Again, good knowledge and understanding and you have contrasted the different perspectives well and throughout you answer. It looks like this is starting to make sense to you , Holly. Well done!


K&U - 5/6

AIE - 7/10

Com 4/4



= 16/20 = 80% = A
Reply 25
Thanks for posting those Hollities! Really helpful.
Reply 26
No problems. I'm going to write some more, get my teacher to mark them tomorrow. I'll post them afterwards.
Reply 27
Here's an essay I wrote, it was only a B grade and didn't get any feedback on how to improve it but might help someone.

How do conservatives defend property rights?
Property rights refer to the right of the individual to own their own property, independently of the government. Generally, conservatives support private ownership of property. There are minimal differences between the traditionalist and new right views on property rights, but they are mainly on the base of emphasis as both strands have similar views.

Conservatives believe that all people should be independent from the state, not relying on government funding or intervention in their personal lives. Therefore, earning their own money and choosing how to spend it, e.g. on housing, is encouraged to express their view of freedom of them individual.

Conservatives believe that property reflects a person’s hard work and success, further demonstrating the typical conservative viewpoint of a natural hierarchy in society, where those who have the natural ability for hard work and various important roles in society have more money and property. Conservatives may believe that property gives an incentive to those with fewer skills to work harder and be able to buy a house. An example of this was Thatcher’s “right to buy” policy, which allowed council tenants to buy their house. This idea may also benefit society in general through the ‘trickle-down effect’. This idea is that if the rich, superior people in society are looked after, e.g. have money and a house, the poor people will also benefit as the success will trickle down through society.

Defending the property rights may stem from Burke’s idea that people will do anything to get what they want, demonstrating the typical conservative views of being tough on law and order and their general pessimism of human nature.

Capitalism is one of the key ideas behind conservatism and property ownership completely supports this capitalism ideology, as well as low taxation and allowing people a sense of achievement, both classic capitalist ideas.

Another of conservatism’s important ideas is family. They believe that person’s life and ideas is shaped through their family so it is very important to have a strong family foundation. Property ownership allows a family to have a strong sense of unity and tradition through inheritance.

and here's some notes I made on the conservative view of human nature using Heywood & McNaughton's books.

Conservatives have a pessimistic view of human nature. Unlike other ideologies, conservatism dismisses the idea that humans are or have the potential to be ‘good’. Instead they consider humans imperfect and unperfectable.

Humans are considered to be psychologically limited by conservatives. They also think that human beings are generally dependent creatures, fearing isolation and instability. This belief has led conservatives to emphasise the importance of social order and to be suspicious of individual freedom. Order in society ensures stability and predictability; while liberty presents individuals with choice, which could result in change and uncertainty. Thomas Hobbes suggested that humans should be prepared to sacrifice liberty for the sake of a stable society.

Conservatives believe that immoral behaviour is deeply rooted in the individual and consider all human beings morally imperfect, probably influenced by the Roman Catholic view that all people are born with original sin. Hobbes said that “power after power” is the primary human urge, suggesting that humankind is innately selfish and greedy. Conservatives would argue that crime is not due to social circumstance but a consequence of base human instincts and the only deterrent is law, backed up with the knowledge that it will be strictly enforced. This explains the conservative preference for a strong government and rigorous criminal justice schemes, based on long sentences and harsh (even capital) punishment(s). For conservatives, the role of law is to preserve order.

Due to humankind’s selfishness and greed, conservatives would argue that generally people could not be trusted with the reponsibility of running government. Instead, this power should be handed to benevolent ruler, who would be firm but would also have people’s best interests at heart. Burke stated that the relationship between government and society should be similar to that between a parent and child. This idea is referred to as paternalism.

As well being psychologically limited, conservatives also consider humans to be intellectually limited and have traditionally considered the world to complicated for human reason to grasp. This means that they are suspicious of abstract ideas and resist change to prevent confusion. Instead their ideas are deeply rooted in tradition, experience and history leading to a pragmatic approach to the world. They also believe that principles such as the rights of man, equality and social justice may lead to a dangerous remodelling of the world and could argue that reform and revloulation could do more harm than good. Ultimately this this could mean that to do nothing at all could be preferable to doing something, supported by Oakeshott’s words that we must ensure ‘the cure is not worse than the disease’.

However, the support for traditionalism and pragmastic has weakened as a result of the rise of the new right. The new right is radical, and has sought to advance free market reforms. Secondly, new right raicalism is based in rationalism and commitment to abstract theories that other conservatives would reject, notably economic liberalism.
Reply 28
Hi, I'm having trouble with the Anarchism long essays asking for a judgement weather it's closer to socialism or liberalism. I know about each strand, but I'm no sure how to structure it and what conclusion to come to. Any help? Cheers.
Reply 29
oh god.

help, what are the "easiest" ones from unit 5? I'm definitely doing feminism, but need another one or tow that I could kind of squeeze into a day... :p:
Reply 30
Probably anarchism. Fascism is ok but needs some nationalism.
I'm doing anarchism, fascism and nationalism, the latter 2 supports each other.
Reply 32
ive dont lib n conservatism too an okk level for unit 4

only done anarchism so far for unit 5 ........... any idea on another?....i was thinknn nationalism but it seems well loong.

any idea of what Q gona come up
Reply 33
These haven't been marked, but I think they could help:

How did Stalinism differ from Leninism


Lenin's core goal was to follow the theories of Karl Marx in order to produce a utopian, free and equal society. Lenin, unlike Marx, did not believe that the proletariat would become conscious of social class inequalities and therefore, although believing parliamentary politics were merely a bourgeois trick on the proletariat to believe there was true democracy, felt that the only way to seize power was through producing his own party within government. Lenin believed the only way to gain power was by an armed insurrection in order to 'smash the state'. He created a 'Revolutionary Party' which was full of professionals and dedicated revolutionaries. Lenin's aim was to echo Marx's call for a transitional dictatorship of the proletariat. He believed that the state would 'wither away' and eventually full communism would be achieved over time.
It was Stalin's reign after Lenin's death which caused the largest retreat from socialist ideology within Russia itself. Stalin manipulated the weakened disposition of the country soon after the revolution and the unfortunate death of Lenin in order to bring himself to an ultimate power. Stalin, very much unlike Lenin, pulled away from the 'withering away' state but instead implemented a totalitarian dictatorship. He removed socialist central themes such as equality and freedoms, he denied people's right to free speech and even opportunity. Stalin became forceful; pressurising peasants to give up their land not to common ownership but to that of collective ownership. Stalin's very own power hungry greed caused him to mutilate the country's idea of socialism and even kill millions of his own people in order to maintain his own status.
Economically Stalin differed largely from Lenin again, Lenin's New Economic Policy introduced in 1921 developed a mixed economy which agriculture and small scale industry remained in private hands, while the state only controlled what Lenin called 'commanding heights of the economy'. Stalin's Five Year Plans, however, brought rapid industrialisation and the eradication of private enterprise. Economic Stalinism therefore took a stance of state collectivisation or 'state socialism', capitalism was entirely removed and replaced with a system of central planning.
Leninism differs from Stalinism in every possible way. Stalin reversed the actions Lenin has hoped to put into place in Russia, society was restricted through the immensely strong state and economically Stalin radically eradicated any remnants of Leninism and post revolution capitalism.

On what grounds have conservatives supported authority


The conservative doctrine was established from the workings of Edmund Burke in response to the actions of the French Revolution. Burke felt it was necessary for there to be sufficient changes to the workings of the British government so that it could divert itself from a revolution similar to that of the one within France. Conservatism, therefore is an 'ideology' based on the idea of preserving the norm and the traditional and in order to do this there must be forcefulness and authority.
Conservatives view the individual to be fundamentally flawed and it has been said to be a 'philosophy of human imperfection' (O'Sullivan). It is believed that the individual will willingly exploit another, especially within and due to capitalist competition, and therefore conservatives feel it is necessary to protect the individual from his or herself and others by enforcing a strong, authoritarian state, regarding law or and order to be key means of management.
Authority is also supported on the grounds that conservatives believe in what is an organic society. They believe that individuals are dependant and security-seeking creatures, and that individuals cannot exist outside of society. Freedom to a traditional conservative involves 'doing one's duty' and that it is the bonds of duty and obligation that hold society together. Conservatives have traditionally thought that society is a living thing, an organism, whose parts work together, combined with numerous fragile interrelationships and that 'a whole is more than a collection of individual parts' (Haywood). Conservatism regard the family to be the most basic institution in society as well as the being an important organism. Like society and its organisms, conversatives believe that hierarchy (and with this authority) evolve naturally. For example, the paternal father and his children. They believe that it develops from natural necessarily - everyone needs guidance, support and the security of knowing 'where they stand'.
Although most conservatives support authority, they also believe that it should be exercised with limits and there limits are imposed natural responsibilities. Authoritarian conservatives, however, believe that authority is absolute and unquestionable.


Is conservatism truly an ideology? (60)

Conservatism itself has been remarked upon as a 'state of mind' and a 'hodge podge of ideas' (Hugh Trevor Roper). The fact that conservatism links itself with many different other ideologies and philosophies can enhance its reputation as its very own ideology. Conservatism does this by taking ideas and philosophies that have been proven to work in the past and the present. The fact that conservatism does this links nicely to that of the conservatives' view of human nature. Conservatives believe that the individual is a society-dependant and security seeking being - one that needs norms, values and traditions and therefore benefits best from being within and using political processes which are known to work well and can be relied upon. In spite of the fact the theories are said to be taken from other ideologies, the fact that it is a mixture of strong philosophy only strengthens the idea that it is, in fact, its own ideology.
Conservatism emerged from the workings of Edmund Burke. Burke's conservatism came from strong opposition of radical change; this change was particularly seen in the French Revolution of the time. Burke's writings were not in resistance to change itself, but rather in a willingness to 'change in order to conserve'.
The conservatives hold strong views on human nature, state and society, they believe that the individual is psychologically limited, fundamentally flawed and morally imperfect. Thomas Hobbes portrays this in his thought of 'power after power'. This negative view on the individual and the fact that they're entirely dependant upon society and others within it enhances the conservative need for strong and authoritarian state. Conservatives also strive in their views on an organic society; they believe that society is very much like an organism and so, over time, changes and evolves with the people and their attitudes and values of the time. Conservatives, with this, value paternalism and view authority as natural and believe that it, with everything else, evolves over time. These strong beliefs also mark conservatism, similar to other ideologies as one itself. And highlight the conservsative need to be pragmatic.
Although conservatism itself does not have a particular, strong stance on economy it uses what is pragmatic of the time; economy evolves and changes much quicker than the individual and society through slight changes, and therefore must be the loosest key in conservative ideology. Haywood writes 'conservatism has prospered because it has been unwilling to be tied down to a fixed system of ideas', it is this pragmatism which withdraws the conservative 'ideology' from any of the others. Conservatism is unable to manifest its ideas and so therefore is without essential texts or works of authority. This lack of solidarity can reflect the conservatives' view of natural evolution, what is important at one stage may be, in the future, insignificant or the curse that ruins the conservation of traditions and normality that the conservatives stand for. Therefore, pragmatically changing ideology with society is what suits conservatives and is what has kept it alive for such a substanial length of time.
These lack of fixed views, along with the fact that conservatism is without a goal 'utopia' is what may define conservatism as not an ideology but rather that of a doctrine. Conservatives, however, stand by the idea that 'the best is the enemy of the good' and working towards the best often ignores both minorities and what may be considered 'insignificant' of the time. It is felt therefore, that as conservatism has no fixed ideas that it does not qualify to being its own ideology but rather a collection of teachings - a doctrine, even so, a doctrine of great power.



They could be all wrong... feel free to tell me.. but I used my notes throughout.
Reply 34
Jaterade
Hi, I'm having trouble with the Anarchism long essays asking for a judgement weather it's closer to socialism or liberalism. I know about each strand, but I'm no sure how to structure it and what conclusion to come to. Any help? Cheers.


??
Reply 35
Write about the individual strands then.
Collectivist is closer to socialism, due to the fact it is similar to extreme Marxism.. people are notable better suited working together. socialable and cooperative. However individualist, which (i believe) is closely related to anarcho-capitalism, strives for individual personal interest and is far more about the freedom of the individual than that of the equaity of the collective, linking it much closer to liberalism.

Collective society is non-hierarchical, there is no private ownership, workers own the means of production. "property is theft" pierre joseph proudhon. No profiteering or exploition.

Individual: free market economics. market replaces government. property owned by sovereign individual. pursuit of individual happiness. individual remains free and the market regulates all social interaction... very similar to classical liberalism.
Reply 36
as in not being A gradae student or nothing but the 60 mark answer does seem quite short........... does it not have to be that long? any tips on answering 60 markers
Reply 37
Hollities
Write about the individual strands then.
Collectivist is closer to socialism, due to the fact it is similar to extreme Marxism.. people are notable better suited working together. socialable and cooperative. However individualist, which (i believe) is closely related to anarcho-capitalism, strives for individual personal interest and is far more about the freedom of the individual than that of the equaity of the collective, linking it much closer to liberalism.

Collective society is non-hierarchical, there is no private ownership, workers own the means of production. "property is theft" pierre joseph proudhon. No profiteering or exploition.

Individual: free market economics. market replaces government. property owned by sovereign individual. pursuit of individual happiness. individual remains free and the market regulates all social interaction... very similar to classical liberalism.


Yeah I get al that, I'm just not sure which to say it's closer to. Thanks!
Reply 38
Say that it isn't closer to either as both strands are both equally subject to both socialism and liberalism.
Reply 39
That's a good idea actually. The only other idea I had was to say that it was closer to socialism as colloctivist anarchism has seen some success in the form of mutualism and syndicalism. Thanks!

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