TSR Wiki > Study Help > Subjects and Revision > Revision Notes > Psychology > A2 Psychology A Level - Issues
Gender bias
Alpha bias – Theories that acknowledge real differences between men and women. These can be promoting or devaluing either sex.
Beta bias – Theories that ignore or minimise and difference between men and women.
Freuds theory of psychosexual development
- Freud described femininity as failed masculinity. “We must not allow ourselves to regard the two sexes as equal”.
- Females inferior due to absence of a penis, so do not go through Oedipus conflict (castration anxiety).
Super ego develops during the Oedipus conflict so women must be morally inferior.
Freuds theory of psychosexual development reflects the time of his work – Men were superior.
Homey suggested that it did not make sense to assume women are jealous because men have penis’, it may be due to their social status.
Evolutionary Psychology
- Evolutionary Psychology suggests that gender differences are real, not just stereotypes
- Evo Psych involves strict roles i.e. Men: Hunters Women: Childcare
- Gender differences in what partners look for (Dating Ads, Dunbar) Men: Looks Women: Resources
Kohlbergs theory of moral understanding
- Developed a set of moral dilemmas that could be used to assess why people made moral decisions.
- All based on principles of justice.
- Answers from a set of boys and developed a theory of moral understanding.
- Kohlberg claimed that the theory applied equally to everyone – minimising gender differences to assume males and females would react the same, (BETA BIAS).
Through making answers of males the norm, it is stating that males are superior so in effect the theory is also alpha bias.
Kohlbergs study was criticised by Gilligan. Gilligan stated that males are not superior they just have a different way of thinking. Womens morals lie more with care and responsibility and males with justice.
Gilligan emphasises differences between men and women and so is alpha bias.
Ethics
Deception – researchers guilty of “active” deception if they deliberately mislead or p’s about a study.
In “passive” deception researchers may hold back some important information from P’s.
If deceived P’s are not able to give fully informed consent.
Some deception is needed within studies such as memory etc to ensure the aim is not given away.
Informed consent – Human research participants should be allowed to agree or refuse to take part in a study.
Right to withdraw – It should be made clear that a participant is allowed to leave at any time during the study.
Milgram
In the time of Milgrams study there were no ethical guidelines, but on the grounds of today’s ethical issues Milgrams study was very unethical.
- Deception – the P’s were led to believe it was a study about learning and punishment when it was really about obedience to authority. Because of deception there was lack of fully informed consent.
- Protection of participants – Throughout the study the p’s were seen to suffer from high levels of stress and anxiety. Milgram followed the p’s after the study to ensure they were in an acceptable state. 84% glad that took part.
- Right to withdraw – Milgram did not make it clear to the p’s that they had the right to leave the study at any time.
Milgram debriefed at the end of the study. And also consulted psychiatrists before the study.
Zimbardo
- Protection of participants – the p’s in the study were not protected mentally, physically or mentally. It was not expected that they would take to their roles so much. Participants were humiliated.
- Study ended after 6 days due to extreme emotional and behavioural effects.
- Deception – P’s did not know that they would be arrested at home for true effect. (Passive deception, only some information was withheld.)
Piliavin et al (Underground study)
- Informed consent – did not receive informed consent from those participating in the study. Piliavin would use presumptive consent as people would expect to be watched on a subway.
- Right to withdraw – the p’s did not know they were taking part in a study so they did not have the opportunity to withdraw – especially as it was on subway so no where to escape.
Culture bias
- Ethnocentrism – the use of our own ethnic or cultural groups to make judgements about others. We tend to see our own culture as “normal” or superior.
- Cultural relativism – the idea that all cultures are equally worthy of respect.
- Eurocentrism – a form of psychology were psychologists emphasize on European or Western countries.
- Etic – focuses on human behaviour
- Emic – focuses on the way activities and development can be observed in a particular culture.
- Imposed etic – Imposed etic is when researchers study human behaviour in different parts of the world using theories and studies developed in the western countries.
Moghaddam – “Economic” theories of relationships
Moghaddam suggests that his theory only applies to western relationships and only to short term relationships within the high mobility. Reflects the characteristics of individualistic societies in which group members are mainly concerned with their own success. Collectivist societies – group members more concerned with the group rather than “equity” and “profit and loss” in relationships.
Holmes and Rahe (SRRS)
Holmes and Rahe made a list of major life events that would cause some kind of change or stress.
- They studied 2,500 Male American sailors. Total SRRS score recorded.
- Following 6 months record of sailors health kept
- Positive correlation between SRRS score and illness scores.
Study restricted to Americans (Ethnocentric), all were males (androcentric).
Cannot be restricted to other cultures, as different cultures and countries may find different events stressful.
Mary Ainsworth study could also be used for cultural bias.
Experiments on non-human animals
- Scientific yes – animals reproduce quicker – heredity experiments, large samples – practicality, also animal behaviour simpler – easier to analyse
- Eysenck and Broadhurst, ’64 – rats bred to react or not to react to stressors – conclusions about genetic factors in anxiety
- Darwin, 1859 – humans and animals only quantitatively different, not qualitatively
- Scientific no – Humanism – humans capable of self-actualisation – animals incapable of this so humans more complex and thus different
- Ethical yes – more acceptable to carry out psychosurgery and social deprivation on animals than humans
- Gray, ’85 – anti-anxiety research – important discoveries about parts of brain made
- Harlow, ’79 – monkeys – deprivation – conclusions about effects on humans
- Speciesism – Gray, ’91 – acceptable (on basis of natural selection) to value humans above animals for benefits to human race
- Malim et al, ’92 – research led to reducing levels of poison in crop fields – beneficial to animals
- Ethical no – speciesism – Singer, ’91 – like racism. Ryder, ’91 – speciesism is a form of discrimination and can’t be defended on its biological origins.
- Mukerjee, ‘97 – if animals are like humans then as ethically wrong to experiment upon them as on humans
- Animals incapable of consent, so by human standards experiments are wrong
- List of studies for evaluation in studies type questions:
- Harlow – monkeys – effects of deprivation
- Eysenck and Broadhurst – rats – genetic disposition to anxiety
- Pavlov – dogs – behavioural theory + classical con.
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