Revision:Attitudes and Behaviour

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Attitude Formation

Occurs through learning.

Simple associative process of classical conditioning.

Direct reinforcement of behaviors consistent with some attitudinal position (operant conditioning).

Observe others gaining reinforcers for having and expressing some attitude, we likely adopt that attitude (Observational learning).

One problem of inference is the unreliability of single indicators (e.g., self-report, GSR, facial expression). This is why scientists and laypeople alike should always use multiple indicators when inferring attitudes.

Because attitudes are enduring and dispositional, they must be stored somewhere, and the specific indicators of the attitude must be caused by something.

The schema model of attitudes tries to describe that "something". An attitude is thought of as a schema--that is, a network of representations (similar to a memory trace, but more complex). A schema thus integrates all components of attitudes because it represents (and can cause) beliefs, emotions, physiological reactions, behavioral tendencies, etc. The network can be "activated" through any one aspect (e.g., seeing the attitude object) and in turn activated the other aspects (e.g., the emotion, beliefs about the object, a tendency to approach the object). The schema model is also compatible with several possible neurological instantiations of networks (e.g., molecular, neuronal, holistic) and thus makes it plausible that attitudes actually exist somewhere in the brain.

Origins of attitudes

Imitation (conscious adoption, unconscious assimilation; Newcomb, 1943).

Information (e.g., perception, rumor, reading newspapers).

Reward and punishment (operant conditioning). Experiment by Hildum & Brown (1956): Phone interviews in which experimenter says "good" or "mm-hmm" in response to expressed opinions. These opinions became more strongly held attitudes, as tested one week later.

By association with basic pleasant/unpleasant reactions (classical conditioning).Some of these basic reactions are probably unlearned (e.g., physiological stress, pain, certain odors and sounds).

Genetic influence Tesser (1993). Some attitudes (e.g., towards the death penalty, religion, sex, music) show heritability coefficients of around .50. More heritable attitudes are harder to change, and they are more quickly activateable. Clearly, attitudes don't "sit" on genes; genetic influences on attitudes must be mediated through complex interactions between abstract biological tendencies and socio-cultural shaping.

The attitude-behavior link

Doubts about the validity of this link: LaPiere (1934), sociologists in the 50s, Wicker (1969). In response to these doubts, researchers studied the conditions under which attitudes do predict behavior.

Attitude side

Measurement: Assessment of multiple indicators improves prediction.

Direct experience (either during formation or during repeated encounters with the attitude object) strengthens attitude.

Strength of attitude (extremity, confidence, accessibility) improves prediction.

Activation (e.g., through encountering the attitude object; through mirrors to increase self-awareness; through reminders of one's attitude): activated attitudes cause behavior more reliably. Further reading on awareness: Joko Beck, Everyday Zen.

Behavior side

Measurement: Aggregating several behavior assessments (across multiple occasions, different situations) improves prediction.

Channel factors vs. counteracting forces.

Channel factors improve prediction--interpersonal support (e.g., your friends help you not to drink when you drive), chains of behaviors (e.g., blood donation drive with sign-ups, maps, etc.). Counteracting forces decrease prediction--situational pressures (e.g., economic depression during LaPiere's study), peer pressure (e.g., attitudes toward drug use predict only behavior alone, not among peers).

Measurement: Temporal delay between attitude and behavior assessment.

Compatibility (attitudes and behaviors are on similar level of specificity); study on birth control attitudes by Davidson & Jaccard (1979); when attitudes and behaviors are compatible, predictions are as high as r .60.

Two last points:

• In some sense, attitudes are behaviors (e.g., instantaneous affective reactions).

• The importance of the attitude-behavior link in everyday life: effects on perception, choice of social partners, accuracy, surprise; lessons for self-regulation.

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