Revision:Behavourism and Learning

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Generalization - The tendency of a new stimulus that is similar to the original stimulus to produce a response that is similar to the conditioned response.

Discrimination - The process of learning to respond to certain stimuli and not to respond to others.

Extinction - The weakening of the conditioned response in the absence of the unconditioned stimulus.

Spontaneous Recovery - The process by which a condition response can recur after a time delay without further conditioning.

Stimulus Substitution - Pavlov's theory of how classical conditioning works; the nervous system is structured in such a way that the CS and the US bond together and eventually the CS substituted for the US.

Information Theory - Contemporary explanation of why classical condition works; key to understand classical conditioning focuses on the information an organism gets from the situation.

(E. C. Tolman, 1932) - The organism used the CS as a sign or expectation that a US will follow.

Phobias - Irrational fears.

Counterconditioning - A procedure for weakening a CR by associating the fear-provoking stimulus with a new response incompatible with the fear.

(Mary Cover Jones, 1924) - Eliminated fear in 3 year old.

Some behaviors associated with health problems or mental disorders can involved classical conditioning

Operant Conditioning

Form of learning in which the consequences of behavior produce changes in the probability of the behavior's occurrence.

The behavior operates on the environments, and the environment in turn operates on the behavior.

Explains voluntary actions.

Stimuli that govern behavior follow the behavior (as oppose to Classical C.)

E. L. Thorndike -Experimented with power of consequences in determining voluntary behavior.

Law of Effect - Behaviors followed by positive outcomes are strengthen, whereas behaviors followed by negative outcomes are weakened.

S-R Theory - Thorndike's view

The correct stimulus-response association strengths and the incorrect association weakens because of the consequences of the organism's actions.

Organism's behavior is due to a connection between a stimulus and a response.

B. F. Skinner - Developed concept of operant conditioning (1938)

Pigeon-guided missile

Walden Two (1948) - Presented idea of scientifically managed society

Utopian society through behavioral control

Our behavior is controlled by environmental forces is to ignore science and reality

Skinner box - A device in a box would deliver food pellets into a tray at random. After a rate became accustomed to the box, Skinner installed a lever and observed the rat's behavior. As the hungry rat explored the box, it occasionally pressed the ever and a food pellet would be dispenses.

Reinforcement (reward) - A consequence that increases the probability that a behavior will occur.

Positive Reinforcement - The frequency of a response increases because it is followed by a stimulus.

Negative Reinforcement - The frequency of a response increases because the response is either removes a stimulus or involves avoiding the stimulus.

Punishment - A consequence that decreases the probability that a behavior will occur.

Time Interval - Learning more efficient when the interval between response and reinforcement is a few seconds rather than minutes or hours.

(Holland, 1996) - Learning is more efficient under immediate rather than delayed consequences.

Shaping and Chaining

Shaping - The process of rewarding approximations of desired behavior.

Chaining - Technique used to reach a complex sequence, or chain or behaviors. The procedure begins by shaping the final response in the sequence. Then you work backward until a chain of behaviors is learned.

Primary and Secondary Reinforcement

Positive reinforcement

Primary Reinforcement - Involves the use of reinforces that are innately satisfying, that is they do not take any learning on the organism's part to make them pleasurable.

Secondary Reinforcement - Acquires its positive value through experience; secondary reinforces are learned or conditioned reinforces.

Token Rein forcer - Money

Schedules of Reinforcement

Partial Reinforcement - Responses are not reinforced each time they occur

Schedules of reinforcement - 'Timetables' that determine when a response will be reinforced.

Fixed-Ratio Schedule - Reinforces a behavior after a set number of responses.

Variable-Ratio Schedule - A timetable in which responses are rewarded an average number of time, but on an unpredictable basis.

Fixed-Interval Schedule - Reinforces the first appropriated response after a fixed amount of time has elapsed.

Variable-Interval Schedule - A timetable in which a response is reinforced after a variable amount of time has elapsed.

The closer the schedule is to continuous reinforcement, the faster the individual learns. However, once behavior is learned, the intermittent schedules can be effective n maintaining behavior.

(Skinner, 961) - Rate of behavior varies from one schedule to the next

Fixed-ratio schedule produced a high rate of behavior with a pause occurring between the reinforce and the behavior

Variable-ration schedule elicits a high rate of behavior when the pause after the reinforcement is eliminated.

This schedule usually elicits the highest response rate of all four schedules.

Interval schedules produce behavior at a lower rate than ratio schedules.

Extinction - A previously reinforced response is no longer reinforced and there is decreased tendency to perform the response.

Generalization - Giving the same response to similar stimuli.

Discrimination - The tendency to respond only to those stimuli that are correlated with reinforcement.

Discriminative Stimuli - Signal that a response will be reinforced

Applied behavior analysis (behavior modification) - Application of operant condition principles to change human behavior.

Observational Learning - (aka imitation or modeling) Learning that occurs when a person observes and imitates someone's behavior.

(Bandura (1965) - Bobo dolls

Cognitive Factors in Learning

S-O-R Model - A model of learning that gives some importance to cognitive factors.

Stimulus - Organism, 'black box'

Response

Cognitive map - An organism's mental representation of the structure of physical space.

Insight learning - A form of problem solving in which the organism develops a sudden insight or understanding of a problem's solution.

Preparedness - Species-specific biological predisposition to learn in certain way but not in others.

Instinctive Drift - Tendency of animals to revert to instinctive behavior that interferes with learning.

Taste aversion - if an organism ingests a substance that poisons but does not kill it, the organism often develops considerable distaste for that substance.

Behaviorism Notes and other Words

Learning - A relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs through experience.

Classical Conditioning - Responding

Operand Conditioning - Acting

Observational Conditioning - Observing

Classical Conditioning - A neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus and acquires the capacity to elicit a similar response.

The organism as responding to the environment (fails to capture active nature of the organism and its influence on the environment. )

Explains involuntary responses

Pavlov

Reflexes - Automatic stimulus-response connections.

Unconditional Stimulus (US) - A stimulus that provides a response without prior learning.

Unconditional Response - (UP) - An unlearned response that is automatically elected by the US.

Conditioned Stimulus (CS) - Previous neutral stimulus that eventually elicits the condition response after being associated with the unconditioned stimulus.

Conditioned Response - (CR) - Learned response to CS that occurs after CS - US paring. (Pavlov, 1927)

(DeCola & Fanselow, 1995) The interval between the CS & US is one of the most important aspects of classical conditioning.

Congruity - Degree of association of the stimuli.

(Kimble, 1961) - Conditioned responses developed when the interval between the CS and US is very short, as in a matter of seconds. In many instances, optimal spacing is a fraction of a second.

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