Revision:Islamic Conquests up to 700 a.d. - Islamic Strenghts / Roman Weaknesses? 1

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ARAB STRENGTHS

• Becker’s

  view those migrations only after initial victories in Iraq and Syria. Migrations after thought unleashed

  promise of wealth and of land in conquered domains. Hunger and greed rather than religious

  zeal.
• general

  weakness Byzantine and Sasanid Persia due to prolonged wars lucky

  presence of good generals and administrators on Arab side.

• Canard - Attributes much to dissatisfaction of

  people in Syria and Iraq rejects Arabs driven out of Arabia by misery

  yes booty, yes economic factors encourage people to the front, but not

  driving forward. Would have

  stopped in Syria and Iraq and not continued.
• Gabrieli - was seething with arms and armed

  men: the victors, no less than the vanquished, needed an outlet for their

  surplus energies…Certainly one of the major incentives for external

  conquest may have lain in this explosive internal situation”.
• Muhammad’s career and doctrines of Islam

  revolutionised both the ideological base and political structures of

  Arabian society gave rise of state for first time capable of organizing

  and executing an expansionist movement.

  Yes accidental factors such as weakness of empires more than an

  accident testament to power of human action mobilised by ideological

  commitment as a force in human affairs

• Muhammad’s

  Medina displayed much greater cohesiveness - new ideology and gradual rise

  of new institutional and organizational arrangements grew into a new

  state much better relations with tribal confederations etc. No problem creating confederation

  bigger problem maintaining it.

• Muhammad controlled a polity main characteristics

  of state: high degree centralisation, primacy of law or centralised higher

  authority in the settlement of disputes, institutions to perform

  administrative functions. 622 for convenience.

• integrative

  power of acting on raw material of Arabian society unleashed expansive

  military potential of peninsula and generated Islamic conquest

• 1. Unique, Separate and unified Islamic community

  umma 2. concept of absolute higher authority 3. concept of centralisation

  of authority within Umma
• UMMA OR COMMUNITY OF BELIEVERS yes communities

  with religious ties such as inks of tribes around Harams etc. But umma universal community of

  believers reflecting one universal God.

  Main difference monotheism - active rejection of Paganism laid clam

  to whole pagan population. Notion umma could and must expand to include entire

  Pagan population if not mankind implicit. Conscious or unconscious acceptance of such a notion proves

  most supportive of an extended conquest movement with political and

  religious character.

• O

  believers, take not for your intimates outside yourselves; such men spare

  nothing to run you: they year for

  you to suffer”. Emphasis

  separateness leads to social and political centralisation. Umma had to transcend tribal ties

• Set stage for great process of integration and

  expansion that we call Islamic conquests Islam provided powerful

  ideological underpinning for rise of state institutions and for

  interfering with community that extended beyond the tribe. There is no God but God, and Muhammad

  is the apostle of God”.

• New

  ideology that gave accomplishments durability and made them the foundation

  of the conquest movement. Discern

  them in features of the state
• Creation

  of a centralised tax regime formed culmination of Muhammad’s long process

  of political consolidation.
• End

  of career Muhammad had created a new state in Western Arabia constructed

  by traditional means bound together by ideological and institutional

  factors that allowed it to transcend usual forms of political organization

  in tribal confederations.

• Hitherto unknown durability and centralised control

  over subjects- by prevalence eof overriding concept of law, focusing of

  political authority in God, the umma and Muhammad, systemisation of tax

  and justice, establishment network of administrative agents.

• Muhammad

  preaches that nomadic life incompatible with Islam yes Muslims but take

  another oath of allegiance. We see

  sedentary groups begin seen as more powerful and Islamic that nomadic

  groups change in power dynamic: ”…can be no Islam to those who do not

  settle”

• 3 kinds of domination:
1. Hegemony of Muslims over non-Muslims
2. Dominance of essentially Hijazi ruling elite over other tribal groups

• Hegemony of a sophisticated sedentary elite and their state over nomadic groups
• On

  the way to the front, the core forces so assembled were also able to raise

  further recruits as they passed through the territories of various tribes”

  not just hordes organized contingents with objectives and general

  movements caused by the ruling elites.

• impetus to political unification and

  centralization implicit in Islam’s concept of a universal, unique God, of

  a overriding moral authority established by God”.

• Tribal

  ties good way of identifying where soldiers were and what they were up to

  pay and military organization.
• Solve

  nomadic problems recruiting their finest and most dangerous warriors into

  the Arabian armies thus increasing military power, whilst reducing real

  power of nomads in the desert. Ata

  or stipend more of a reward for settling down. Umar The sooner one settles,

  the sooner one receives a stipend”
• Placement

  of garrison towns important - yes

  defence against Byzantine and Sasanians and springboard for further

  campaign but also keep an eye on nomadic Syrian an Arabian populace. Ringing remaining nomads in desert with

  forts garrison in alKufa central Iraq
• Success

  conquests first and foremost product of organizational breakthrough of

  proportions unparalleled in Arabian world.
• Muslims

  succeeded because able to organize effective conquest movement impact

  new religion of Islam which provided ideological underpinnings for

  remarkable breakthrough in social organisations truly an Islamic

  movement Islam set of beliefs preached by Muhammad social and

  political ramifications sparked whole integration process and hence

  ultimate cause of conquests’ success.
• Umar

  seen as creator of perfect welfare state presented by God for embracing

  his cause initially emigrants subsidized by the government.
• expand and survive”

• only toward end of Umayadd period that Byzantines

  able to face Muslims on anything approaching equal basis. Little incentive for sending diplomatic

  missions to establish modus vivendi with other powers to establish

  permanent relations who were soon to be defeated and incorporated within

  Daral-Islam

• Why?

  Arabs were excellent warriors, culture that prized personal valour. Groups

  of Bedouin significant threat but united Arab groups such as confederate

  allies of Romans more formidable Ghassanids as effective in pitched

  battle as any other Persian troops.

 

 

 

BYZANTINE WEAKNESS

• Reflect

  broader cultural differences Monophysiote used vernacular and

  essentially rural powerful lay supporters in Syria Ghassnids

  significant proportion population alienated from ruling class culturally

  and religion seen as heretical whilst did not cooperate with Islamic

  conquests little enthusiasm for Byzantine cause - parts of Syria

  actually welcomed no where near as significant resistance as in

  Anatolia, Armenia or Fars in southern Iran.
• Long

  term weakness revealed by catastrophes following death Maurice 602 aided

  by Khursau II Perez peace helped form border harmony Avars and Slavs

  Phocas incompetent usurper pretext Khursau to invade and avenge

  benefactor’s death catastrophic effects Antioch (613) and Jerusalem

  (614) all Syria and Palestine, plus Egypt, much Anatolian highlands

  destruction Anatolian highlands. Phocas replaced by Heraclius who led

  brilliant campaigns against Persians 628 enters Ctesiphon Persian

  conquests Syrian and Egypt restored to Byzantine control
• Long

  war accelerated and confirmed tendencies of previous centuries

  demographic and urban decline. Syrian borderlands deserted to less chaotic

  areas, generations inhabitants grown up without any sense of Empire

  little residual loyalty. Little

  time to repair defences or self-government. Syria attempts to solve religious issue Monophytism and

  Diophytism Monotheletism Egypt militant dio bishop appointed

  systematic alienation of population, little Christian unity. If Heraclius enjoyed fruits of victory

  for a few decades new structure in near East perhaps Islamic armies

  arrived when Byzantine rule was recent, shaky and widely resented. Islamic conquest product of decline

  Byzantine civilisation as well as blow itself.

• 631 Heraclius entrusts Cryrus, bishop of Phasis in

  Caucasus with patriarch Alexandria persecuted Monophysites of Coptic

  church alienated much population from Roman rule, more so than Syria

  where some Orthodox.

·       

Time to re-establish complicated structure of

administrative and personal ties which bound the provinces to the capital.

• Defeat

  Persia vindication of the Christian Empire require time to recover from

  strains of war and set about realising the opportunities of the post war

  world.
• neither

  provincials or imperial government would have good reason to think

  beginning of exceptional crisis transform near East.
• Imperial

  control slowly being reconstructed after 20 year absence generations

  without experience of imperial rule much Palestine, Syria and

  Transjordan effctiely self-governing under bishops and local notables 0

  Muslim Arabs must have appeared as a desirable continuation of state

  affairs.
• Limited

  ability to strike back Romans achieve victory over Persia with a Turkish

  alliance making supreme effort to raise an army, despite loss of

  empire’s most productive regions if Herakleios’ eastern campaign failed

  627-8 no further stocks of church treasure to melt down and it would be

  some time before the attempt could be repeated.
• Devastated

  by continuing Arab invasions and raids by sea and land, cut off from main

  trade routes of Near East which now focussed on Syria, Egypt and Iraq

  empire’s economy rapidly fell away from levels of 600.
• Copper

  coins, although common in Muslim territory, virtually disappear within

  empire. Red-slip fine wares from North Africa no longer found long

  tradition of manufacture and distribution had come to an end. General lack of pottery implies

  disappearance centres of production and d of long-distance trading

  networks.
• Imperial

  capital never ceased to be a relatively large city a centre of

  government and of some commerce.

  Mango evidence of decay. C

  early middle ages centre of Roman world largest and wealthiest cities.

  More important from 600 onwards as no other major cities preservation

  essential to empire’s survival

 

 

PERSIAN WEAKNESS

• Conquests made easier by exhaustion of Byzantine

  and Sasanian Empire due to prolonged warfare, confusion that reigned in

  Sasanian ruling house, disruption caused by recent enemy occupation of

  Syria and Iraq, destruction wrought by immense floods in Southern Iraq,

  disaffection for religious and other reasons, convenience of inner lines

  of communication that Muslims enjoyed
• Dynastic rule of Sasanians whilst stopping early

  usurpers who could not gain respect Bahram Chobin (590-1) in years of

  Kurso II Pavez death difficult for sovereign to emerge to 628-32 ten

  different Kings by time Yazdgard III found hiding and made King Muslim

  armies attacking the Empire.
• Mazdakite uprising of late 5^th and early

  6^th century religious movement with strong social overtones

  abolition property and class distinction. Kavad I 488 531 backed

  it! Symbolises rare insight into

  social discontents in Iran left an ideological legacy for 9^th

  century uprising in Azerbaijan.
• Two levels of Persian aristocracy upper aristocracy

  consisted of a few great families suspicion of great magnates, see

  Bahram Chbin Khursau’s ill-advised decision to abolish Lakhmid buffer

  kingdom of al-Hira which guarded desert frontier of Iraq.
• Mixture religious beliefs reflects ethnic and

  linguistic diversity Kurds Dalymites n Iraq, Lurs, Baluchis Iraq

  mostly Aramiac, arabs in al-Jazira and al-Hira Persians confine to

  cities.
• Long term weaknesses exacerbated by short-term

  problems violent and unpredictable policies of Khursau II Parvez and

  struggle for succession - Khursau II no great administrator

  centralisation alienated monarchy, ten yr rebellion Khuran executed

  southern governor. Determination

  for authority led to arrest and execution of al-Nu’man last of Lakhmid kings

  of Hira replaced by Persian governor.

  These problems les to attack 602 disastrous to both empire

  initially successful but comeback takes Ctesiphon extensive floods and

  resistance weakened by plague Kursau’s failings as a military commander led

  to murderous feud amongst sons ruined and bitterly divided not

  surprising that Persian defeated, but they fought so well.
• Byzantine and Sassanain undergone far-reaching and

  fundamental changes in century before Islam social, economic and

  structural changes like increased importance pastoral people and absence

  civic autonomy associated with development of Islamic society under way

  before 6^th century.

  Muslim conquest breaking up conservative world order far from truth

  entered an already changing world and shaped and accelerated existing

  trends. Dynamic development of

  Islamic world understood against this background.
• much larger Persian army 12,000 much larger Persia

  army under Rustam battle of Qadisiyya decisive Persian host totally

  defeated and shortly afterwards Persian capital (Ctesiphon) occupied and

  occupied by victorious army 637

  -victory at Jalula forced Yazdgird III to withdraw to Isfahan

  areas - secures position of

  Muslims, small groups of whom now took control of town and villages of

  Iraq as far north as Mosul.
• Persian resistance ineffective with loss of Iraq

  Persians lose wealthiest province and capital Ctesiphon political centre

  of the empire. Ctesiphon and

  Sasanian court privded powerful political and cultural focus beyond

  religious alliance as long as that survived Persian empire could cope

  with disasters such as death and defeat of shah Perox at hands Hepthalites

  in 484 Roman invasion 627 8 comparative ethnic unity of Iranian

  plateau and mountainous barrier it offers invader from west counted for

  very little as Arabs hunted down last shahs. Constantinople 1200 k from Damascus.

·       

Sasanian army at Dhu Qar turn 7^th century

unified group of nomads could overcome army of settled folk. Impetus Islam not under-rated in brilliant

victories for Arabs. unity as well as inspiration and drive to conquest.

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