Revision:Psychopathology model answer

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Exam question:

(a)Outline criteria used in diagnosing depression

(b) Critically consider two or more psychological explanations for depression'

(a) According to the DSMIV criteria, depression is a maladaptive state in which the individual feels sad and depressive, often characterized by great fatigue and insomnia. In addition, the individual may have a reduced or increased appetite which may lead to weight loss/gain. The depressive person is also unable take pleasure from activities which they used to enjoy before the onset of depression. Recurrent thoughts of death and suicide are also very common in depressed patients. DSMIV states that if a number of these symptoms co-occur then it is likely that the person is suffering from unipolar depression.

(b) One psychological explanation of unipolar depression is the psychodynamic explanation. Freud believed that when a loved one is lost we usually enter a temporary period of mourning, after which life returns to normal. However, in some people this mourning period never seems to end and they continue to exist in a state of depression. Freud also believed that we have unconscious negative feelings towards those we love and when a loved one is lost, these feelings are turned upon ourselves. In some cases, the individual continues this pattern of self blame and self abuse for a prolonged period of time.

There is some empirical evidence to support the claim that early loss may lead to depression. Shah and Waller (2000) found that many people who are suffering from depression are more likely to describe their parents as affectionless than non-depressed patients. However, it should also be remembered that loss of a parent also affects the child’s environment as well as their psychological functioning. The social hardships that the loss brings may predispose some people to depression rather than causing it directly. Another psychological explanation of depression is the behavioural viewpoint. Lewinsohn (1974) makes use of the learning theory to suggest that depression is caused by a reduction in positive reinforcement. For example, if someone loses their job there will be fewer opportunities for them to be praised for their accomplishments. The depressive behavior may then be positively reinforced (and so perpetuated) through the sympathy and concern of others. Seligman (1974) instead developed the ‘Learned Helplessness’ theory to explain the causes of depression. This theory claims that when a person tries but fails to control unpleasant experiences, they may acquire a sense of being unable to exercise control over their life, and so become depressed. This ‘learned helplessness’ then prevents them from trying to exercise any control over their lives.

However, there are inconsistent findings relating to the learned helplessness theory.A study by Miller and Seligman (1974) have supported the predictions made by the learned helplessness model, whereas many others have not found evidence of the adverse effects of learned helplessness. A study by Wortman and Brehm (1975) actually showed that a state of helplessness in one condition can make individuals more determined to succeed in the future. Wu et al (1999) found that uncontrollable negative life events can actually lead to reduced levels of norepinephrine and serotonin in the brain, which has been implicated with depression. This piece of research provides a link between biological explanations of depression and psychological ones.

Another psychological explanation of depression is the cognitive-behavioural explanation. Abramson et al (1989) devised the hopelessness theory to describe depression in terms of an individual’s pessimistic future expectations. They believed that depressed people develop a maladaptive attributional style whereby they consistently attribute failure to internal, stable and global causes. The hopeless person therefore expects bad things to happen in important areas of their life and does not believe they have the resources to change that situation.

Research to support this model comes from Kwon and Laurenceau (2002), who found that participants with a more negative attributional style also showed more of the symptoms associated with depression when stressed. A key element of depression is that the individual believes they have little control over their lives. However Ford and Neale conducted research which challenged this assumption. They studied a group of depressed students and found that they did not underestimate their level of control.

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