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X-rays are produced when high-speed electrons hit a metal target (anode).
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Control of X-rays:
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Tube voltage (kV) affects X-ray energy/penetration.
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Tube current (mA) affects intensity (number of X-rays).
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X-ray attenuation mechanisms:
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Photoelectric effect: Dominates at low energy, key for image contrast.
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Compton scattering: Dominates at mid energies, reduces image quality.
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Pair production (only at very high energies, not typical in medical imaging).
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Contrast media: Substances like barium or iodine absorb X-rays more to enhance image contrast.
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Multiple X-ray images taken at different angles.
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Reconstructed into a cross-sectional 3D image using computer algorithms.
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High-frequency sound waves (1–15 MHz).
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Used for soft tissue imaging (e.g., fetus, organs).
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Reflection occurs at boundaries between tissues of different acoustic impedance.
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Piezoelectric effect: Crystals generate/receive ultrasound pulses.
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Uses strong magnetic fields and radiofrequency waves.
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Aligns hydrogen nuclei in the body; detects their signals after RF pulse.
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Good for imaging soft tissues (brain, spine, joints).
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Current (I): Flow of charge per second (A).
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Voltage (V): Energy transferred per unit charge (J/C).
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Resistance (R): Opposition to current flow. Formula: V = IR
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For ohmic conductors, current is directly proportional to voltage (constant temperature).
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Non-ohmic devices (e.g. filament lamp, diode) don’t follow Ohm’s law.
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Power (P) = VI = I²R = V²/R
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Energy (E) = Power × time = VIt
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1st Law (Current Law): Total current entering a junction = total current leaving.
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2nd Law (Voltage Law): Total EMF = total potential drops in a loop.
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Series:
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Current same in all components.
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Voltages add up.
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Parallel:
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Voltage same across branches.
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Total current = sum of branch currents.
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Real batteries have internal resistance r.
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Terminal voltage: V = E – Ir, where E is emf.
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Divides voltage in proportion to resistors: Vout = (R2 / (R1 + R2)) × Vin
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Store energy in an electric field.
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Q = CV
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Discharge follows exponential decay.
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