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• TRIBE AND STATE IN ARABIA

• Integration of tribes and centralisation started by Muhammad continued right through the period – integration into single Arab state set stage for conquests – which represented fruit of integration. Right through period taxes levied on newly integrated groups.

• Continuing recruitment into Islamic armies – whether nomadic or settled no longer politically autonomous political entities. Absorbed into larger framework of he state – taxed, recruited and administered them at will. “Umar drew up armies of conquests by requesting his agents among the tribes to send contingents from the groups for which they were responsible. “On the way to the front, the core forces so assembled were also able to raise further recruits as they passed through the territories of various tribes” – not just hordes organized contingents with objectives and general movements caused by the ruling elites.

• Tri split of state after ridda wars policy not to recruit rebellious tribesmen into armies, but as conquests continued in Iraq – further hostilities demanded raising of new and larger armies – manpower crisis arose.

• Caliphate of Umar v. al-Khattab recruiting former rebels 0 made available manpower necessary to wrest victory in transitional and third phases of conquests of central Iraq – victories mainly from rebels of ridda – enlarged political stratum that lay between Islamic ruling elite and conquered tribesmen of Arabia – class of tribesmen literally employed to help ruling elite establish goals.

• Dangerous – inherently disloyal men in groups together – nothing happened during Islamic conquests, but does this affect stability of later period?

• MEANS OF INTEGRATION – spectrum of inducements all tied up with Islamic regime made integration so successful – why need? To stop disparate groups causing internal strife.

• Ideology of Islam which successfully integrated under Muhammad continued during conquest period – “impetus to political unification and centralization implicit in Islam’s concept of a universal, unique God, of a overriding moral authority established by God”.

• Booty still a lure but gift giving institutionalised via stipend (ata) – predictability created a direct and enduring link between interests of those recruited into Islamic regime and interests of state. Less likely rebellion as quantify what to be lost.

• Grant of lands of new lands – nasib provided loyalty as they can only utilise benefits if politically quiescent

• New lines of solidarity from army units that cut across tribal ties

• Yes over-rided tribal ties, but too engrained not to exist – success of elite in utilising tribal ties for own end and ability to override these ties when necessary.

• Tribal ties good way of identifying where soldiers were and what they were up to – pay and military organization.

• Easy for Arabian to break military ties, but if intertwined with tribal ties then it would not happen.

• Getting ties with tribal leaders therefore essential but if in ridda wars they themselves were serious potential rivals of state power. Real challenge to tie interests of key tribal leaders to state for their loyalty – use tribal allegiance of chieftains to accomplish ultimate objectives of the state.

• Islamic conquests – used “conciliation of hearts” extra payments – Jarir b. ‘Abdullah of Bajila tribe – after moment of need at battle of bridge – elite approached Jarir – only grant troops if extra booty.

• Practice of use of marriages continued into conquests period – chief of Kinda al-Ash’ath b Qays pardoned by Abu Bakr and bound him to regime by allowing him to marry his own sister – Umm Farwa.

• Alsouse of land gifts – bigger than nasib.

• Enhancing leader’s status among tribe by making leader perceive that he was on the pulse: inviting them to functions, discussing policies of state. Status linked to state – not easily be used against the state. These leaders emerge a sashraf – tribal notables of garrison towns - decades showed themselves subservient to state and its interests – as must function of distributor of surplus.

• Ridda rebels not totally accepted and integrated – even their tribal leaders employed by the state helped insure process of state integration would not be wrecked by secession of powerful tribal chiefs - elite’s objectives for the state would not be too greatly distorted by activities of these chiefs.

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